¶ Forest Protection
¶ Boundary Survey, Demarcation and Maintenance
Re-opening and maintenance of external boundaries of FMUs is crucial in the restoration and/or maintenance of their legal integrity. The boundary shows where the FMU starts and where the neighbouring land ends and vice versa. More infrastructure is added to a boundary as reference points for future boundary activities as well as to reduce conflicts with those neighbouring the FMU. Reopening and maintenance are expensive exercises and a standard procedure is necessary in order to minimise the costs and ease coordination, monitoring and reporting.
The NFA Standards for Boundary Demarcation (2005)[1] describe in detail the procedure for demarcation and maintenance of FR boundaries. The main features of the standards are slashing/ hoeing to keep the boundary clean and visible, and establishment of permanent boundary infrastructure which includes cairns/ beacons, directional trenches, and signposts. Where pressure is intense, it may be necessary to plant live markers or belts of trees for purposes of clear visibility.
Once the above infrastructures are put in place along the FMU boundary, the cost of boundary maintenance becomes significantly reduced over time. Maintenance will be reduced to activities like spot weeding of live markers, repair of eroded cairns, repair of sign plates and cleaning of silted trenches. These are activities that can be done periodically, or in the course of boundary inspection, and therefore, not expensive.
Recent practice has revised the NFA Standards as outlined below:
(i) Before embarking on a re-survey operation, obtain an Instruction to Survey from the Commissioner, Department of Lands and Surveys
(ii) Hold a meeting of the relevant staff at headquarters to consider stakeholders to be involved, including LG officials and communities, personnel to be involved, whether to outsource the work or not, access to labour, possible conflicts, security during the operation, and generate agreement on the budget, among others
(iii) Frame a preliminary contract if the work is to be outsourced
(iv) Conduct a reconnaissance around the FMU, jointly with local communities & LG officials to appraise issues raised during the planning meeting
(v) Revise the budget (or contract if the work is outsourced) according to the findings of the reconnaissance
(vi) Stake out the boundary line and install the pillars using:
• Modern tools to stake out accurate boundary lines (differential GPS, Total Station, etc)
• Round concrete pillars instead of the traditional small beacons for boundary corner marking. The pillars should be 1.5 meters long (one meter above the ground) and long iron bars protruding to form a stable base and extending outwards 0.5 metres below ground level.
• Stones (in cement mortar if the section is sensitive) to show the direction of the boundary and position of corner cairns on rocky ground
• The old numbering nomenclature (codes for district, FR, beacon number serially for each FR) in recording the boundary particulars should be maintained
(vii) Record the boundary particulars on boundary plan map using the Lands & Surveys reference sheets
(viii) Submit survey data to Lands and Surveys Department for plotting on their maps
(ix) Stock boundary maps for all FRs at strategic institutional units to hedge against loss that may arise if stored in one place.
(x) Keep hard copies of boundary maps at the FMU station, and a slide rule to facilitate mapping of activities being undertaken
(xi) Conduct regular field training in map reading and interpretation
It is expected that the standards will be revised from time to time to reflect changing technology and the general land management practices in the country
Instruction 221: FMIs shall reconcile the procedures in the Standards for Boundary Demarcation with the recent modifications outlined above to produce updated standard operating procedures for carrying out boundary re-survey and demarcation operations. The procedures shall be revised periodically to take into account technological developments and field monitoring experiences.
Instruction 222: Existing boundary plan records should be kept in multiple ways to hedge against loss, and/ or damage (digital & hard copies), stored at Headquarters, at all Range Offices, Nyabyeya Forestry College, and Makerere University Library, among others
¶ Licensing by Responsible Bodies
Section 41 of The Forestry Act provides for licensing by RBs for taking forest produce, subject to relevant provisions in the FMP. Section 42 of The Forestry Act 2003 obliges RBs to issue licenses through fair, open and competitive processes. Regulations 90 - 91 of the Forestry Regulations give details for the licensing process.
Instruction 223: All activities in FRs shall be licensed. Sections 41 – 43 of The Forestry Act provide guidance on how licensing should be done. Regulations 90 – 91 and 102 - 104 and the corresponding Schedules of the Forestry Regulations, give details on licensing and management of licenses in FRs.
¶ Law Enforcement and Compliance
Section 7 – 8 of the Forestry Act provide for declaration of FRs, while Sections 14 and 31 – 59 of the Forestry Act provide for protection and management of forest produce, and the use of other authorised activities. Section 44 (1) – (6) of the Land Act, 1998 gives additional protection of FR boundaries.
Instruction 224: All public Forest Officers (as defined by the Public Service Standing Orders) shall undergo a five-day refresher and orientation training course respectively for recruits and serving Forest Officers on the legal framework governing forest management (Constitutional provisions, the Forestry Act and Regulations, Wildlife Act, NEA, and the Land Act, among others). Annex A of the NFSS outlines the full list of laws that relate to forest management, and the criteria, indicators, verifiers and Guides in Principle 1 shall provide the basis for the training course syllabus. The orientation course shall be conducted at least once a year so that FPs can share experiences
¶ Cooperation with other Security and Law Enforcement Agencies
For over two decades, Government FMIs have actively cooperated with Internal Security Organisation and Uganda Peoples Defence Force, in addition to other authorized persons, in the function of law enforcement. The primary role of the two security agencies is information gathering, analysis, synthesis and distribution to the RBs in charge of FRs and their mother organisations.
Instruction 225: The specific functions of security agencies shall include:
(i) Routine gathering of illegal forest produce and encroachment related information.
(ii) Covert operations to detect and report on illegal forest produce harvesting and forest encroachment.
(iii) Provision of support to Forest Officers in detecting and containing illegalities aforementioned.
(iv) Cultivation of firm and amicable liaison between District Security Committee, District Security Officers and Sub-County Security Officers.
(v) Providing and/or expediting overt security cover to field staff as and when needed, provided this will not compromise their overall effectiveness.
Instruction 226: The following conditions shall apply in relation to security personnel, and must be strictly observed.
(i) All deployment shall be requested for by the Minister. Field work shall be sanctioned by the RB responsible for FRs for accounting purposes, although this does not rule out immediate attention to an urgent issue if implied delay may compromise positive outcomes.
(ii) The concerned RB may provide logistics and daily subsistence and night allowances in accordance with its financial procedures. This may include reimbursement of transport hire and airtime, where this is deemed necessary for the security of the operation(s), provided such is authorised by the RB.
(iii) If overt action is inevitable, this must be carried out in the company of an RB staff or other “authorised person” under the Forestry Act.
(iv) Every operation must be followed by a report that clearly states objective(s) of the operation(s), observations and results, conclusions and recommendations.
¶ Patrolling External Boundaries of FRs
Regular patrolling is essential, particularly the sections bordering heavily populated areas.
Instruction 227: FMU staff engaged on protection work shall submit boundary inspection reports monthly, stating which section of the boundary they patrolled, the state it was in, any offences discovered and action taken. Where it becomes necessary (e.g. someone starts to cultivate or build a structure before the next reporting date), the FMU staff shall prepare a situational report, stating the urgency of the matter and his/ her proposed actions to contain the situation. Such a report shall be despatched to reach the appropriate office within less than 24 hours from the discovery of the offence.
Instruction 228: Likewise, FMU FPs shall inspect boundaries regularly. As a general rule, boundaries that are regularly patrolled shall be inspected by a Senior FP at least once a year.
Instruction 229: Aerial inspection is a quick method of checking the boundaries, but can only be useful when the boundaries are clearly and visually demarcated on the ground. FMI Headquarters may arrange for inspections by drone, plane, or other method as appropriate, from time to time, and respective FMU staff shall be involved.
Instruction 230: Wherever constant patrol is required, it is essential to maintain a slashed path, regardless of the type of vegetative cover. In the forest, lines shall be cleared to 2m width and all trees with foliage below 3m and under 20 cm. diameter felled and removed from the line, provided that minimum of interference with the canopy is caused owing to the need to limit regrowth. In areas where there is little danger from encroachment or theft, such a line can be easily picked up many years after clearing. Where intensive patrol is necessary, a narrow path should be maintained - a cycling track may even be possible.
Instruction 231: RBs shall design and approve standard forms for the boundary inspection report that suit their respective circumstances and mandates.
¶ Forest Produce Monitoring
The Forestry Act established a number of forest ownership types under a generic umbrella concept of “responsible bodies” (RBs). The ownership types and the corresponding RBs include:
• Central Forest Reserves – NFA is the RB;
• Local Forest Reserves – DFO is the RB;
• Community Forests – specified registered Community Forestry Institutions are the RBs; and
• Private Forests - registered owner of the land/forest is the RB.
UWA is the RB for forests in areas under its jurisdiction, including National Parks, Wildlife Reserves and Community Wildlife Areas.
When the Forestry Act became operational, law enforcement, especially regarding verifying the legal chain of custody for forest produce from all these sources became problematic as the various RBs had differing degrees of readiness to operate effectively. Of all RBs, only the NFA and UWA had the needed capability to undertake law enforcement. DLGs were losing considerable revenue and private forest/tree owners were not getting the true market prices. There was flooding of the domestic market with contraband forest produce, the market was turbulent, unpredictable and characterised by daily speculation and market forces were not well regulated. This environment led to proliferation of impostors and conmen who were terrorising the unsuspecting public in the name of law enforcement. The resulting systemic instability proved to be a disincentive to investment and market-oriented sectoral growth and development. From a macro-economic point of view, this would harm the construction industry and confound the ideals underlying the forest sector governance reforms that the government had painstakingly carried out since 2001.
There was, therefore, urgent need to stabilise the market and hence restore harmony and confidence in the forest produce market. Accordingly, the Minister restructured and strengthened the Forest Produce Monitoring Unit at NFA as a “one-stop-centre” to take lead in the law enforcement function. NFA was also to assist all the other RBs to develop reciprocal systems for the purpose. The Forest Produce Monitoring Unit had cross-cutting powers and served all RBs, of course taking into account the statutory duties of each RB. In this regard, the Minister issued a “Public Notice” in the print media in 2004 outlining details of the chain of custody for especially logs and timber (New Vision, Friday November 12th 2004). The spirit of the public notice is now captured in the Forestry Regulations, specifically Regulation 104.
Instruction 232: Movement of forest produce from the forest to the market place shall be managed through a short chain procedure whose key features include:
• All harvesting of forest produce is done under license to be issued by a respective RB
• Volume and length (in running metres) are the standard parameters of unit measure for logs and timber respectively [2].
• Barcodes for stock control along the chain of custody (CoC).
• Forest produce movement documents issued or endorsed at each stage in the CoC
• A system of surveillance from the forest to the market
Instruction 233: Until the barcode system is developed and authorised, the following procedure based on hammer codes shall continue to be followed:
(i) All logs shall be stamped with the same number appearing on the stump before leaving the stump. In addition, individual logs from one tree should bear serial numbers which shall all be recorded on the Log Volume Measurement Sheet before being removed. This will not apply to plantations except if logs are being transported.
(ii) All timber shall be stamped with the relevant code of the area of origin before being transported. The stamp marks shall face outward when loading for fast/easy checking. Any piece seen unmarked shall be confiscated.
(iii) Upon marking, a Forest Produce Declaration Form shall be issued.
(iv) All timber leaving a district shall have the district “seal” stamped on each piece before leaving that district. A “Forest Produce Movement Permit” shall be issued, after payment of an administration fee to the District Chief Finance Officer. The fee shall be established by MWE.
(v) Any individual or organization engaged in forest harvesting should have a license issued by the RB, payment receipts of all statutory and other dues and should acquire a Forest Produce Declaration Form before transporting the produce from the area of conversion.
(vi) Before timber is marked by the field staff, all the relevant documents must be made available in their entirety.
(vii) Chain-sawn timber is contraband and shall be confiscated at site, together with the chainsaw, and any vehicles used for transportation. This is in addition to heavy fines and prosecution.
(viii) DFO’s at the nearest point of entry at the Uganda border shall clear all imported timber provided all the normal payments and documentary evidence relating thereto from the country of origin, Uganda Revenue Authority and import licenses are presented and copies deposited with the DFO. A Forest Produce Movement Permit shall be issued by the responsible DFO to the importer upon payment of an administration fee established by MWE.
Instruction 234: The main content of all the forms shall be coded and included in the FMU management information system which is linked to the central national database. Therefore, even CFRs shall use the same records.
Instruction 235: All unmarked and/ or undocumented forest produce shall be confiscated and forfeited to the state by the “owner”. It is a primary responsibility of the forest produce “owner” to ensure that the produce is marked appropriately before it is moved. An “Illegal Forest Produce Declaration Forms” shall accompany all confiscated forest produce. Copies of these forms are given in the Forestry Regulations Schedules and shall also always accompany any timber transiting through Uganda.
Instruction 236: The MWE, in collaboration with all RBs, shall prepare, keep updated, and issue harmonized procedures for harvesting forest products in and outside FRs.
Instruction 237: The bulk of timber in Uganda is produced through pitsawying. Every pitsawyer shall acquire a license before commencing pitsawying. In addition, each pitsawyer shall:
(i) Convert and take only logs as shall have been marked by a designated representative of the RB.
(ii) Not remove from the place of conversion any forest produce allowed by licence until such produce has been measured and marked by a relevant Authorised Person with the relevant mark’
(iii) Take all necessary precautions to prevent damage to other forest produce arising out of their operations under the licence and shall be responsible for the acts of their employees and agents.
(iv) At all times assist the RB staff in the prevention and extinction of fires in or threatening the area the subject of this licence, and in the prevention and detection of forest offences.
(v) Pay for the logs before they are converted.
(vi) Pay annual license fees as determined by the Minister to the Chief Finance Officer of the District of operations, 18% VAT “equalisation” levy of the value of the timber, unless the licensee is a registered VAT collector, and the statutory stumpage value to the RB, and obtain appropriate receipts.
(vii) Be liable to pay compensation to the RB for any damage caused to the forest - the amount of such compensation shall be assessed as set out by the Minister.
(viii) Have the licence cancelled and the forest produce forfeited, without prejudice to any proceedings which may be taken in respect of the said breach in the event of a breach of the Forestry Act or any term or condition of the license.
(ix) On the expiry of the licence, surrender it to the issuing authority.
(x) Ensure that all timber moved is in accordance with Instruction No. 176 above.
(xi) Note that no ownership of logs and timber taken under license shall be vested in the Licensee until the fees due in respect thereof have been fully paid.
(xii) Note that the rights conferred by the licence shall be subject to local customary privileges under Section 33 of the Forestry Act
(xiii) Note that the license is personal to the Licensee and shall not be assigned.
(xiv) Note that in the event of the licensee being a registered Company, the licence shall cease if the Company enters into liquidation or if the control of the Company passes to any other person or body, except when the written permission of the RB is given for the continuance of the licence.
(xv) Note that in the licence where any power is required to be exercised or any duty or act is required to be performed by the Minister, such power may be exercised or such duty or act performed by an Authorised Person in accordance with the Forestry Act, 2003.
(xvi) Note that the RB reserves the right to amend the conditions of the license, for improvement of forest management and environment protection, and the licensee shall be notified of, and adhere to, the amended conditions.
(xvii) Not cut more than the roundwood volume paid for. Failure to observe this may lead to instant termination of the license.
(xviii) Have the responsibility for ensuring that there are no illegal activities in the area of operation, and reporting illegal activities whenever they come to their notice.
¶ Management of Encroachment of Forest Reserves
Sections 14 and 32 of the Forestry Act establish prohibited acts in FRs. In simple terms, encroachment is failure to respect the provisions in the two Sections, including entering the FR for any purpose without license. There are pull and push factors underlying encroachment including:
(i) Apparent shortage of land for cultivation outside FRs.
(ii) Attraction by the seemingly fertile land in FRs.
(iii) Poor agricultural practices that degrade land outside of forests resulting in poor productivity and low production.
(iv) Erosion of the RB’s capacity for undertaking law enforcement and monitoring compliance due to a lack of required financial and other resources.
(v) Corruption and weak internal indiscipline.
(vi) Unclear FR boundaries.
(vii) Lack of appreciation of government policies and laws.
(viii) Uncontrolled invasion by commercial interests to exploit forest resources for financial gain
(ix) Political interference in forestry management and administration.
(x) Systemic and heavy discounting of future benefits of conserving forests in favour of today’s livelihoods.
(xi) Uncontrolled and unplanned urban expansion.
(xii) District Land Boards and Uganda Land Board illegally issuing land titles in FRs .
RBs have a duty to restore the legal, ecological, social and economic status of FRs and Community Forests so that the government and the public can fully realise the contribution of forestry to the national economy and general well-being of the population.
Entry into a FR or Community Forest for the purpose of grazing, cultivation, mining, settlement or other form of construction without a license can be done deliberately or occur unknowingly. None of these activities is in line with SFM and such acts all are illegal. During 2004 – 2006, NFA resolved to confront and manage encroachment, albeit through sensitively structured and managed measures that avoided massive eviction of encroachers with the attendant family hardships and political interference. The measures worked and RBs may still apply them.
Instruction 238: RBs shall implement the management of encroachment measures below giving full attention to the established national legal framework and international obligations for the observance of human rights, for example the OECD principles on involuntary population displacement, where they are appropriate.
(i) Encroachment shall be handled on a case-by-case basis for the various FRs and Community Forests because of the unique situations obtaining on the ground.
(ii) RBs shall verify the original boundary cairns, corner beacons and/or directional trenches, before determining the extent of encroachment in a particular FR to differentiate an encroacher from the rest in the community.
(iii) Unclear boundaries in encroached areas shall be opened to reduce conflicts.
(iv) RBs should secure strong, consistent and open political goodwill from Government and DLGs against encroachment through dialogue with the concerned Ministers, Members of Parliament, District Chairpersons and Councillors, Resident District Commissioners (RDCs), Police and other security and law enforcement agencies.
(v) Affected RBs shall write to all RDCs and Local Council 5 Chairpersons with copies to Chief Administrative Officers requesting them to support authorised persons to solve encroachment problems in their respective districts.
(vi) Authorized persons shall create awareness for encroachers to know the consequences of their actions. They should be facilitated to use local radio/radio-talks asking encroachers to vacate at a set dateline depending on site situations. Authorized persons shall educate the public on the relevant legislation, the year when gazetting was done and international human rights obligations.
(vii) FPs shall make regular briefs on the state of encroachment to respective District Councils. Committees to handle encroachment should be formed for each MPA, made up of the RDCs, Local Council 5 Chairpersons, Chief Administrative Officers, DISOs, DLB/Chairmen, Chairmen Production, DPCs as members and the DFO (secretary). The duties of these committees shall include;
• Monitoring movement of encroachers out of the FRs and Community Forests
• Drawing attention of the Prime Minister’s Office in case the encroachers need to be resettled.
• Deciding on matters of encroachment that can be resolved locally.
(viii) There shall be a Team Leader who will be the spokesperson on all encroachment matters in the FMU. The Team Leader shall regularly brief staff on the feelings of the affected district leaders and any obstacles encountered, as well as plan together.
(ix) The RB may request registered encroachers to buy, at an affordable fee, one application form (Annex 11) per family and to apply for a non-transferable license to reside and engage in non-permanent investment in a FR.
(x) RBs shall give each applicant an annual license (Annex 12) to reside and operate in a FR with conditions attached. Renewal of the license shall be conditional on strict adherence to the conditions of license. Note that acceptance of a license is automatic recognition of who the manager and legal owners of the encroached land are, and therefore their licenses can be easily cancelled when they do not comply. When renewal of the license is due, the license shall be returned to the RB, a new application form purchased and new license issued, if applicable.
(xi) “Know-your-encroacher” and sensitise them for voluntary vacation. In particular, RBs shall be left to dialogue directly with the encroachers without third-party (political) involvement as third parties tend to create suspicion between RBs and encroachers. During this exercise, field staff shall:
• Evaluate the category of encroacher and decide accordingly on how to proceed. An earlier evaluation exercise by NFA identified the following main categories[3]:
a) Agricultural activities (subsistence, commercial)
b) Grazing livestock
c) Household settlements – permanent/ semi-permanent/ temporary structures
d) Churches/ mosques
e) Land title deeds issued illegally
f) Government facilities, e.g. schools, health facilities, community centres, army barracks, LG administration centres, etc.
g) Markets
h) Unlicensed tree growing
i) Others (name them one by one)
• Carry out a census and register all encroachers by name, including those that have illegal land titles, and the activities each is engaged in.
• Collect all information/documents from claimants if any, in each forest and photocopy them for the district team and other relevant higher offices to guide management.
• Using the list, prepare and issue Eviction Notices with copies to named higher offices.
• Maintain pressure on encroachers by conducting constant patrols to monitor their movements.
(xii) Law enforcement personnel shall apply the legal provisions in the Forestry Act to the letter with regard to encroachers that decline to be registered and/or to apply for licenses by evicting all of them. Carrying out involuntary evacuation of encroachers without issuing them any letter or official document attracts costly litigation and may lead to serious financial loss to the respective RB. Therefore, Standard “Eviction Notice” forms shall be printed and used (Annex 13).
(xiii) Every area of forest vacated by encroachers shall immediately be brought under control through follow-up activities which include:
• Encroachment planting;
• Boundary planting (if a boundary can clearly be identified at the encroached area); and
• Clean clearing of the boundary (if boundary can clearly be identified at the encroached area).
(xiv) RBs shall maintain a digital database of encroachers and the encroachers who have planted forests should be allowed to register their forests as provided for under Section 24 of the Forestry Act and Regulation 63 of the Forestry Regulations.
(xv) Law enforcement agencies should only be used when absolutely necessary. Encroachers might be needed for labour to replant areas they vacated. Many encroachers are also unaware of the laws on forestry and flexibility is thus necessary. Persuasion is the best method to start with. Law abiding individuals will usually vacate first and leave diehards behind. When a particular group of encroachers is not hostile and willing to discuss, there is usually no need to carry along Police to such meetings. The presence of police intimidates people and might lead to missing much relevant information from encroachers.
(xvi) Field staff should be given topographic maps for verifying the extent of the forestland. Topographic maps are handy here since they show all the neighbouring parishes. An accurate Boundary Plan map is also needed to help trace the remains of boundary marks on the ground, if any.
(xvii) Where activities are compatible with the FMP of the affected FR, such as tree planting, the encroachers concerned should be encouraged to apply for a license as provided for above.
(xviii) Encroachers shall be encouraged to plant trees in part of the area licensed. Trees have a much higher potential to get the encroachers out of poverty than subsistence annual crops.
(xix) Encroachers with permanent structures in the FRs shall apply for a license, and Government of Uganda (GoU) infrastructure in FRs, like schools, health centres and administration headquarters, shall be treated in the same way. Some schools shall definitely be closed when encroachers vacate a FR and the school enrolment falls below the Ministry of Education guidelines.
¶ Management of Forest Fires
Section 35 of The Forestry Act and Regulations 41 – 45 provide for management of forest fires by RBs, DLGs, and the public. The mechanics of fire prevention and protection are described in the sub-sections below
¶ Controlled Burning in Savannah Areas
Any fire, no matter how small, will harm young trees. Except in plantations and natural high-forest, complete fire protection is impracticable. Consequently, it used to be the practice to minimise the damage done by fire in all the savannah woodlands and dry mountain forests by means of “Controlled” or “Early Burning”. When the establishment of exotic plantations on grasslands and woodlands became widespread and because of shortage of funds, early burning was abandoned since the 1950s.
The aim of early burning in savannah is to burn all the grass annually using as small a fire or fires as possible. This is achieved by timing the burn as soon as possible after the cessation of the late rains and before the grass has completely dried out. This limits the fierceness of the fires as there can be no widespread accumulation of flammable material from one year to the next and the presence of some grass that is still too green to burn ensures that the fires are slow and incomplete.
Instruction 239: Controlled burning shall be applied where the expansion of THF is desirable (grassland glades surrounded by THF or adjacent to it, e.g. Budongo-Kitigo) or to prevent fires entering plantations.
Instruction 240: The date to start burning should be as soon as possible after the second rains of the year, i.e. usually in the months of October, November or December, depending on the locality. Burning shall not normally be done in the short dry season between the early and late rains as the grass will grow up and dry out again after the last rains. It will then become a danger and, if burnt a second time, may be unduly weakened or even killed, leaving the soil without protection.
Instruction 241: At the onset of the long dry season, the FP should try to light trial fires each day. Once a trial fire has run 50 m then widespread operations should begin. The trials should be made on the driest sites and especially where small patches of grass remain unburnt from the year before.
Instruction 242: In a flat savanna FR, much of the area will dry out uniformly, making it essential to complete the burn within a few days. Thus, a large gang may be deployed for a short time, perhaps only a week. In mountainous terrain, small areas dry out uniformly and the fire fighters have to move on from the dry site to another returning two or three times to any one valley until all the grass has been fired. In such a case a small labour force may be deployed for several months.
It is essential that the FP intimately knows the area to be burnt, as they shall be constantly directing the fire lighters to those areas which are dry enough to burn. It should be borne in mind that sites on the windward sides of a hill dry out before similar sites on the leeward and, with an accumulation of dead material, will burn more intensely. Also, grass growing on shallow soil will dry out before that on a deep soil and fire moves more easily up-hill than down-hill.
¶ Fire Danger Index Rating
The Fire Danger Index (FDI) is a system where weather conditions are measured in order to predict the chances of a fire occurring, and the behaviour of the fire once it has occurred. The FDI is a numerical figure which places the risk in a category associated with a colour - blue, green, yellow, orange or red.
To calculate the FDI, weather information can be obtained at the nearest weather station. The information required is:
• Dry bulb temperature (oC).
• Relative humidity (RH) (%).
• Wind speed (km per hour).
• No. days since last rain
• Rainfall (mm).
FDI is normally calculated twice daily at 10.00hrs and 14.00hrs. Using a smart phone, it is possible to download an FDI Calculator from Google Play Store which computes the FDI when you feed in the parameters listed above. It is also possible to use an online FDI Calculator, like one developed by Zululand Fire Protection Association (https://zfpa.co.za/fdi.html). Annex 14 outlines the steps for calculating the FDI if the online calculators are not accessible for some reason.
The FDI obtained is used in the FDI Chart (Table 10) for the colour coding.
Table 10: Colour Codes for FDI and the Appropriate Actions in Each Situation
Source: Tree Planting Guidelines for Uganda, 2004 – 2009
In line with the FDI, it is possible to determine the risk involved at any stage of the fire season, plan for, and take appropriate measures to contain fires if they break out. In the example above, the FDI of 42 places the fire risk in Green. The fire behaviour is moderate and light surface fires can be expected. Accordingly, care must be exercised in controlled burning, or burning on exposed dry slopes. In the burning process, watch out for unexpected increase in wind speed and direction.
During the main fire seasons, there should be a large painted sign with an arrow indicating the colour code for the day at every station (Figure 12).
Figure 12: Fire Danger Index Sign with Colour Codes
Source: Tree Planting Guidelines for Uganda, 2004 – 2009
Instruction 243: For each FR a burning plan shall be prepared for each fire season based on the experience of previous years’ work. Implementation of the plan should be based on FDIs which may be shared between the respective RBs.
Instruction 244: Early burning shall commence while the grass is green. The fires shall be lit at mid-day, when the sun is at its hottest and the grass is driest. If burning has to continue late into the dry season when the grass is very dry, fires lit at mid-day will become too fierce and spread too rapidly. Lighting shall then be restricted to after 4 p.m. or even after dark.
Instruction 245: In a forest area with a fairly flat terrain, firing should be done in lines at right angles to the prevailing wind, that is, work proceeds up wind, lines of fire being set at intervals of 400 m or less.
Instruction 246: In mountainous reserves the wind is often deflected by hills and valleys across its path and is liable to change in direction once the sun is high. Nevertheless, fires shall be set in lines across the direction of the wind as at the time of fire lighting and each side of a valley or spur must be treated separately. At the beginning of the burning season the fires should be lit at the bottom of the slopes in order to encourage them to run, but later in the season, when it is necessary to try to restrict the run of the fire, lighting shall begin at the top of the slopes and continue at intervals to the bottom.
Instruction 247: Precautions to prevent loss of life or property shall be taken. The following points shall be born in mind and observed as the local conditions dictate:
• Local chiefs and people, DLG and officers of departments such as those in charge of wildlife and tsetse fly control shall be warned before burning takes place. Normally, at least one month’s warning should be given, with reminders during this period.
• Adequate firebreaks shall be cut or burnt and manned in order to contain the fire within a specific area and near plantations, homesteads and other sites where particular care is needed, the fireline guards and burning gangs shall be suitably equipped (Section 3.8.6.3 below) to prevent uncontrolled spread of the fire. If necessary, water supplies and backpack pumps and truck-mounted water pumps should be kept in readiness.
Instruction 248: No fire shall be allowed to run further than 500 m. If it does, then it is not under control.
Instruction 249: After the operation is complete the area should not be uniformly black. Small patches of un-burnt grass should have been left beneath large shady trees, the edges of the valley and plateau forests should be wide, green, and not scorched, and the first burnt area should be green with a new flush of grass.
Instruction 250: It may happen that before the fire lighters reach them, some parts of a large area dry out to such an extent as to make it difficult to early burn them successfully. In such a case the area shall be burnt after dark. Thus, a relatively small and safe fire may be achieved. The operation shall be repeated on successive nights until all the area has been burnt. On the basis of experience in Karamoja, the cost of the operation will be between 65 -130 ha/man day depending on the type of area. This is exclusive of supervision or fire line cutting, i.e. it is the cost of the fire lighting only.
¶ Fire Protection in Plantations
It is essential that for all plantations in which fire is a hazard, every possible precaution is taken to ensure that normal fire hazards are foreseen, and that abnormal conditions are met.
Instruction 251: Every plantation shall have fire-fighting instructions drawn up. These shall be as simple as possible and list the duties of each person depending on task e.g. patrolman, lookout etc. For supervisory staff there shall be a clear line of command and outline of responsibilities. These instructions shall be written in the form of a Fire Plan which shall be produced for all coniferous plantations and large blocks of fuel and pole plantations (Annex 15).
Instruction 252: Adequate funds shall be estimated for the efficient protection of planted areas. Fire protection has priority over all other operations. In particular, the protection of research plots shall have as high a priority as the rest of the plantation.
Instruction 253: Well before the fire season starts, the following shall be done:
(i) Check and service vehicles and equipment.
(ii) Ensure that adequate spare parts are held. Equipment includes telephones, fire pumps, sirens, beaters, hoes, fire extinguishers in vehicles.
(iii) Repair and fill static tanks.
(iv) Revise fire instructions and ensure that all employees know them. Detail responsibilities to staff and draw up duty rosters.
(v) Practice fire fighting during early burning.
(vi) Give talks to schools.
(vii) Contact Police or Fire Service where they may be in a position to help.
(viii) Contact sawmillers and others working in or near plantations, point out their obligations and discuss their assistance in the event of fire. Ensure that their operations do not constitute a danger to the forest, e.g. dangerous waste piles, cooking fires in the exploitation area.
(ix) Beaters shall be left at convenient places in the plantation for immediate use, but only if made of durable materials such as netting. Leaving piles of branches which quickly dry out as a reserve of beaters not only engenders false security but is an invitation to arson. There shall be one beater of durable materials per 5 ha of plantation.
(x) Static tanks shall be sited at convenient places in the plantation, and kept repaired and filled. As a general guide, there shall be 100 litres of water per ha available in static tanks. One fire pump in good condition shall be held per 20 ha up to 1,000 ha, then one pump per 50 ha.
Instruction 254: Although participation of forest dependent communities in fighting forest fires is clearly implied in the Forestry Regulations [Regulation 43(1) (b)], it is better to convince them of the value of forests and thus win their co-operation than to rely on penalties for infringements of the law. Before the main fire season, local FMI staff shall give talks at convenient centres, including schools, to people living around the FR and tell them what the system is calling them out for and where to report when they hear the warning. Propaganda posters and notices shall be displayed at this time too, but must be taken down at the end of the dry season or their message will be disregarded the following year because of over-familiarity. Local people should rarely be called out for fire-fighting practices as they may then tend to ignore the call for fighting a real fire.
Instruction 255: Whenever alternative sites for plantation establishment are available, areas shall be chosen where grass-suppression can be secured within 2 - 3 years of planting. Where possible, external boundaries shall be chosen where a minimum external fire hazard exists and narrow belts with a long boundary shall be avoided.
Instruction 256: The prevention of fire from entering the plantation from outside may be assisted by early burning outside the boundaries (in the case of uncultivated grasslands). Herbicides may be used to kill a narrow strip of grass around the plantation before the end of the rains, followed by early burning while the rest of the grass is still green.
Instruction 257: Since plantation fires are likely to spread rapidly with little warning, some provision for the containment of fires shall be made. To this end:
(i) The best method of preventing spread of fire is to remove the opportunities for spreading. Avoid piles of cut grass (burn it if possible), heaps of pruned branches and low branches near the forest edge.
(ii) Cleared breaks through the planted area shall be maintained in the early life of the crop. Their width will depend on the hazard, but generally external breaks shall not be less than 5 m wide, and internal breaks not less than 2 m. The breaks shall divide crops of up to 3m high into 25 ha blocks, or if it is still thought necessary, crops of over 3m high into 50 ha blocks.
(iii) Inflammable natural forest may also be used as a fire break. A width of no greater than 100m may be left between compartments and narrower widths within a compartment.
(iv) Roads may also form useful firebreaks around or within compartments.
(v) Supplementary aids to fire containment include differences of species, age class or silvicultural practice between blocks.
Instruction 258: The first essential of fire suppression is that the fire should be tackled as soon as possible once it occurs. The duty of patrols is therefore firstly to alert the main fire-fighting crew and secondly to tackle the fire. If patrols work in pairs carrying a fire pump, beater and whistle or hooter, between them, then while one worker gives the alarm and contacts the fire-fighting crew, the other tackles the fire. Only after they are sure that the alarm has been heard and acted upon shall the first worker return to fight the fire.
Instruction 259: Patrols shall be assigned definite beats and checked periodically. The length of the beat will depend upon the fire risk of that portion. A fire danger rating may be used to determine the number of workers who should be put on standby and patrol. The places where other workers are in the plantation shall be known to patrols. If an alarm is given then gangs working in the plantation shall report to a specific point (Fire Rendezvous Point) from where transport will collect them if available.
Instruction 260: Today there are smart mobile phones with relevant applications. However, they may be hampered where there is no network. Up-to-date communication channels shall be used by all RBs in fire control.
Instruction 261: In addition to mobile patrols, static lookouts, linked to the fire - fighting crew by radio or telephone or even runners, shall be established in fire towers or other places with a good view to warn of fires. When fire danger is low, patrols shall be stood off and only lookouts employed.
Instruction 262: A hand operated siren is the best general alarm, as it has a range of about 4km and cannot be mistaken for any other alarm. Whistles or hooters may be used by patrolmen for alerting other staff. The two main tools for ground fires are the beater and the hoe. Water shall generally be used for damping down the fuel after the flames have been beaten out. Water is also required for drinking.
Instruction 263: During times of extreme fire danger the fire-fighting crew shall be constantly on full alert. There shall be a duty officer in charge of them with provision made for a substitute if he/she is called away to a fire. After a fire, watchmen shall be left for at least 12 hours to ensure that it does not break out again.
Instruction 264: After a fire has been suppressed, the fire fighting crew shall conduct a thorough mopping up exercise so that all remaining glowing pieces of wood and stumps are killed completely using water, otherwise they can be a source of another fire especially at the line between the burnt area and the unburnt area. As part of the mopping up, a clean strip must be hoed to separate the burnt area from the unburnt area and hoeing must be done in such a way that strokes of hoes run from the unburnt section towards the burnt section so that all hoed debris are dragged towards the burnt area. Hoeing towards the unburnt area increases chances of crossing glowing sticks into the unburnt area which can re-ignite the fire.
Instruction 265: The Fire Report Form (Annex 16) shall be completed and forwarded with a map as soon as possible after any fire in a plantation. Every attempt shall be made to complete every heading on the form and if accurate information is not available even an estimate is useful, so long as the fact that it is an estimate is noted. Under “Ground Vegetation”, the principal species of grass or herbs shall be listed and a note made on the way they burnt. Under “Remarks” a note shall be made of the approximate allocation of fire fighters to different tasks, e.g. beating, hoeing, spraying water, carrying water, supervision etc. Also, details shall be given of the state of the fire and the area burnt on the arrival of the main body of the fire fighters. The fire report should be coded and incorporated into the FMU management information system which is linked to the central database at Headquarters.
¶ Management of Planted Firelines
Lines of Eucalyptus were formerly planted in FRs / plantations to form firelines in order to intercept fire sparks and/or force them high into the air so that they would burn out before falling. They also broke the blocks up, formed a relatively un-flammable crown and ground barrier, and provided a ready means of access. Their effectiveness as spark interceptors was, however, doubted, their establishment and management were expensive, the eucalyptus produce was often unsaleable, and they suppressed the adjacent coniferous crop. Planting of eucalyptus firelines was, therefore, discontinued in 1968. There remained, however, several hundred hectares of established eucalyptus firelines. Today, the produce can be sold in various forms e.g. saw logs, utility poles, firewood, etc.
Instruction 266: Planted firelines may be established as external firebreaks, and shall be managed through the clear-felling and coppice regeneration system (Section 3.5.7)
Instruction 267: If felling of external firelines is done, then all felling debris shall be cleared and burnt before the dry season.
¶ Management of Human Wildlife Conflicts
Human-wildlife conflicts occur when animals pose a direct and recurring threat to the livelihood or safety of people, and this leads to the persecution of that species. The conflicts occur when the requirements of wildlife encroach on those of human populations, or when the needs of human populations encroach upon those of wildlife. Manifestations of human wildlife conflicts include crop raiding, livestock predation, human attacks, and disease transmission[4]. The animals may be ordinarily resident in government protected areas or outside. The National Strategy for Management of Human-Wildlife Conflicts, 2020 outlines the actions that can be taken under a variety of situations.
Frequently reported species of problem animals[5] include elephants, hippos, buffaloes, chimpanzees, crocodiles, lions, leopards, jackals and civets. The baboon, vervet monkey, and bush pig were declared vermin in 2001. Vermin includes a wild animal that is destructive, annoying or injurious to health and with due regard to its conservation status has been declared as such by the Board of the Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA) by notice in the gazette[6]. Control of vermin has been provided for under Section 55 of the Uganda Wildlife Act, 2019 as follows:
• UWA or any other lead agency may engage the services of a professional hunter or professional trapper to hunt or trap the vermin or deploy duly qualified officers of UWA for that purpose.
• UWA shall build capacity of LGs to manage vermin.
• UWA shall, at all times, advise the LGs on the value of vermin and recommend the appropriate method for managing the vermin
The UWA Community Conservation Policy, 2020[7], and the National Strategy for Management of Human-Wildlife Conflicts, 2020[8] go into more detail to operationalise the provisions of the Wildlife Act. The Strategy, especially contains the actions that should be taken in various situations around the country.
Instruction 268: Problem animals and vermin originating from forests shall be managed within the provisions of the Uganda Wildlife Act, the UWA Community Conservation Policy, and the National Strategy for Management of Human-Wildlife Conflicts. To this end, FPs shall work closely with UWA to grow their capacity to deal with problem animals and vermin originating from forest reserves, community forests, and private forests.
National Forestry Authority, 2005. Standards for Boundary Demarcation ↩︎
Statutory Instrument (SI) 1970 No. 121: “The Weights and Measures Order” ↩︎
This list has been sourced from an evaluation exercise which was carried out across the whole country by NFA in 2005 ↩︎
Uganda Wildlife Authority, 2020. National Strategy for Management of Human-Wildlife Conflicts ↩︎
Any wild animal that poses a threat to human life and or property outside protected areas and with due regard to its conservation status have been declared as such by law ↩︎
Republic of Uganda, 2019. Uganda Wildlife Act ↩︎
The UWA Community Conservation Policy, 2020 ↩︎
Uganda Wildlife Authority, 2020. National Strategy for Management of Human-Wildlife Conflicts ↩︎